I am sharing another guide to political empowerment, which may be
useful to advocates on disability issues.  As with other guides
I've disseminated, I am not thereby endorsing the publishing
organization, but do appreciate the insights and tips of general
applicability that it has gathered and made available.

----------
   A COMMON CAUSE GUIDE TO CITIZEN ACTION

   How, When and Where to Communicate With Your Elected Officials And
   Other Ways to Make Your Voice Heard


   What good can one person possibly do?

   Common Cause was built on the belief that individuals working together
   can change the world.

   Since 1970, Common Cause members have lobbied Members of Congress for
   government reform. Our successes have come from persistence and the
   strength of unified citizen voices.

   This guide will show you how one person can work to reform government.

   HOW TO COMMUNICATE WITH YOUR LEGISLATORS

   Technology has provided us with a range of opportunities to make our
   voices heard. Particularly when time is of the essence, e-mail, faxes
   and telephone calls are effective -- nearly instant -- communicators.
   Western Union also provides a low-cost opportunity to send a wire to
   your Member of Congress.

   Bear in mind that an opinion on current legislation will receive more
   attention than general observations.

   Common Cause could never have won its important victories in the fight
   against corruption in government without the lobbying of many, many
   members. Your effort could tip the scale -- and help change a vote!

   WHO TO CONTACT

   Your Members of Congress were elected to represent you, so by all
   means, let them know what you think. Contacting House and Senate
   leaders during the build-up to an important vote can be extremely
   effective. The President's office also keeps track of communications
   on current issues. You may not get a personal response, particularly
   if your e-mail, phone call or letter is one of hundreds on the same
   topic, but be certain your message will be heard, loud and clear.

   HOW TO CONTACT YOUR LEGISLATOR

   In general, for all types of communication, be as specific as
   possible. Keep it brief. Identify your subject clearly, give the name
   and bill number of the legislation you are concerned about. Be
   reasonable; don't ask for the impossible or engage in threats. Ask
   that your legislators state their positions on the issue; you are
   entitled to know.

     E-MAIL or FAX your Members of Congress.

     CALL your Members of Congress at their offices in Washington, DC or
   at their state offices. You can also call your Senators or
   Representative by dialing (202) 224-3121 (U.S. Capitol Switchboard)
   and asking for the Member by name. Although you most likely will end
   up talking to a staffer and not the Member, your call -- your voice --
   will be heard.

     WRITE on personal letterhead (if you have it), and be sure to sign
   your name if you have typed the letter. Put your return address on
   your letter. Envelopes get thrown away.

     MEET with your legislators and question them at public events. Keep
   questions short and to the point. Make sure your question is specific:
   "Will you vote for S. 1219?" or "Will you make a public pledge to
   support this campaign reform effort?" Do not use a public forum as an
   opportunity to argue with a Member of Congress. If you disagree with
   their response or find it inadequate, discuss this with them after the
   forum, schedule a meeting in their local office or send a letter
   outlining your concerns.

   E-mails, faxes, letters and other written communications to Members of
   Congress have maximum impact when they concern pending legislation.

   HOW LAWS ARE PASSED IN CONGRESS

   After a bill is introduced by a Senator or Representative, it is
   assigned to the appropriate committee, according to subject area, for
   mark-up. Here it is studied and rewritten. Hearings are held to
   solicit both public and special-interest views.

   During mark-up, the committee considers the specific language of a
   bill and may amend or change it. When the bill clears the committee,
   it goes to the floor for general debate and action.

   Once both houses pass a bill, a conference committee made up of both
   Senators and Representatives works out any differences between the
   House-passed and Senate-passed versions.

   The final conference version must be approved by both houses; then,
   the bill goes to the President to be signed into law. The President
   may veto the bill; in that case, a two-thirds veto override vote in
   both the House and Senate is required for the bill to become law.

   WHEN TO LOBBY

   At any point in this process you may want to personally lobby your
   Representative, Senators, the House and Senate leaders or the
   President. There are special times in the legislative process when
   your letters and calls can be especially productive. For example:

     When a bill is introduced and assigned to a committee, you can
   contact your legislators to request that they cosponsor the bill.
   Obviously, the more cosponsors a bill has, the more likely it is to
   gain support and move through the legislative process.

     If the bill is bottled up in committee and appears unlikely to ever
   emerge, you might contact your Members of Congress and urge them to
   get the bill moving.

     In the Senate, a minority of Senators can stop passage of a bill by
   launching a filibuster, essentially an endless debate. Many campaign
   finance efforts over the years have fallen victim to Senate
   filibusters. The votes of 60 Senators are needed to end a filibuster
   and allow action on a bill. You might contact your Senators and urge
   them to fight obstructionist filibusters blocking action on important
   legislation.

     When legislation is about to come up on the floor of the House or
   Senate, you could contact your legislators and urge support for the
   position you advocate.

   OTHER WAYS TO MAKE YOUR VOICE HEARD

   In addition to communicating with your legislators, there are other
   ways to influence issues you care about.

   Letters-to-the-Editor A letter-to-the-editor gives you a chance to
   inform thousands of people about a critical piece of legislation. Many
   people read these sections of the newspaper, especially elected
   officials. Even if it is not published, your letter might inspire an
   editorial on the same subject.

   When writing a letter-to-the-editor, observe how long the average
   published letter runs, and keep your letter within this length. Make
   your letter concise; avoid rambling and nonspecificity. Be certain to
   sign your name and give your address and telephone number, although
   the latter will not be published. Most newspapers do not print
   anonymous letters, although they may withhold your name if you feel
   strongly about it. Newspapers often receive more letters than they can
   print, so if your letter is not published the first time, try again.

   An Opinion Piece Many newspapers feature a section opposite the
   editorial pages (often called the Op-Ed page) for citizen opinion. If
   you are comfortable writing, consider submitting an article on a
   subject you know and care about.

   Talk With a Reporter or Editor Stop by your local newspaper's office
   and chat with reporters or editorial page editors. Give them special
   information like editorial backgrounders -- updates on issues prepared
   by Common Cause especially for the media. You can find editorial
   backgrounders in the News and Information section.

   Radio Call-In Shows Let others know what you think. Ask questions of
   those who appear on these shows. Ask a Representative or Senator how
   he or she intends to vote on an upcoming issue. Encourage listeners to
   call their Members of Congress. Radio talk shows are also great
   opportunities to mention Common Cause and our issue fights.

   Distribute Action Flyers Distribute informative flyers on reform
   issues in your community. Give them to friends and neighbors, or hand
   them out at your local library or public meeting place. Urge other
   citizens and community groups to become active.

   Encourage Membership Join Common Cause and ask your friends to join.
   The more members we have, the more clout citizens will have in the
   battle to clean up Washington.

   Reach Out to Other Organizations Common Cause works in Washington with
   the national representatives of a broad range of organizations. Bring
   up Common Cause issues at meetings of other groups you belong to, and
   enlist others' support in letter-writing and grassroots lobbying
   campaigns.

----------
                   PERSONAL CONTACT WITH YOUR LEGISLATOR
     _________________________________________________________________

       A meeting with your legislator is helpful at various stages of
   lobbying. It is important to meet with the legislator at the beginning
      of his or her term. This gives you a chance to develop a working
   relationship on the issues of importance to you and to get a sense of
   the legislator's general attitude on those issues. A meeting can also
        be vital during a congressional recess to discuss the latest
   legislative developments while the legislator is back home. This sends
   the legislator back to the capital with a sharper impression that your
   issue is one of those that folks "back home" have been concerned about
     while he or she has been away -- and that it is an issue on which
   constituents are monitoring him or her closely. Finally, it is helpful
     to meet with a representative after an important vote or action in
   Congress, to thank him or her for support or to express disappointment
   in the vote and make it clear you will continue to lobby for a change
                         in position on that issue.

     Following are some guidelines for organizing and holding a meeting
                         with your representative:
     _________________________________________________________________

                             BEFORE THE MEETING
     _________________________________________________________________

   o First, decide whether or not a meeting is appropriate at this time.
      You will make a more effective presentation, and have a greater
     lobbying impact, if you have the purpose for your meeting clearly
   thought out. What do you want to talk to the representative about, who
      should go to the meeting, and what outcome do you want from the
                                  meeting?

     o You may visit your representative alone, with other Common Cause
    members, or with people from other groups in your community that are
       concerned about the same issues. It is often helpful to have a
    delegation meet with the representative. It shows that the issue is
   not simply a singular, personal concern but is an issue of importance
              to many individuals and groups in the community.

      o Call, write, email, or fax your representatives home office or
   office at the capital. You can reach all Representatives and Senators
   in Washington, D.C. by calling 202-224-3121. Ask a
   staff member to arrange a time to see your legislator the next time he
    or she is home in the district. (If you are going to be traveling to
   Washington, you can ask for an office visit at the Capitol if Congress
                              is in session.)

   o Tell them what issue you want to discuss and who will be with you at
                                the meeting.

   o Prepare for your meeting. Do your homework. You do not need to be an
    expert, but you should be familiar with the basics of the issue you
          will be discussing. Also make yourself familiar with the
     representatives latest position or actions on the issue. Refer to
   letters from the representative or other public comments he or she has
    made recently on the issue. Background information is available from
      back issues of Common Cause Magazine or other mailings from the
   national office. Further up-to-date information on the issues and the
      legislator's stand is available from the national office -- call
    202-833-1200 and ask for the Grassroots Department or check out this
                         site for more information.

       o If a group is meeting with the representative, it should be
   established in advance who will be the principal spokesperson for the
                                   group.
     _________________________________________________________________

                             DURING THE MEETING
     _________________________________________________________________

     o Be on time, or ideally a few minutes early. This will give you a
   chance to think through your presentation and to get to meet the staff
        members of the representative. If it is a group meeting, all
      participants should introduce themselves to the representative.

   o It is important initially to establish some common ground -- perhaps
    by thanking the representative for a recent vote in favor of Common
    Cause-supported legislation, co-sponsorship of a bill, or for public
                     statements on an important issue.

       o Know what you want to say, know your facts and make a short
   presentation (no more than five minutes). Present your views politely
    but persuasively. Start by telling your representative that you want
     support for your issue, then give your arguments. Find out exactly
    where your representative stands on the issue. Ask what action he or
                            she intends to take.

   o Be a good listener. Let your representative ask questions as you go
    along, and answer them with hard facts and understanding. You don't
   have to agree with his or her views, but you should show that you are
                           willing to hear them.

     o Don't let the representative evade the issue. Don't be afraid to
   press for specifics. If he or she changes the subject, tactfully bring
   it up again and ask what his or her position is on the issue. Don't be
    concerned if you can't answer all the representative's questions --
    you are not expected to be an expert. If you don't know the answer,
   let the representative know that you will get the information and get
                            back to him or her.

      o Don't assume the representative is against your position just
        because he or she asks hostile sounding questions. While the
    representative may be opposed to your views, he or she may simply be
   finding out how to answer the arguments of opponents to your view. Use
    the questions as a barometer of his or her concerns about the issue
    and as an opportunity further to inform him or her about the issue.

     o If the representative immediately makes it clear he or she is on
   your side, thank him or her for that support and encourage him or her
          to play a leadership role with colleagues on the issue.
     _________________________________________________________________

                             AFTER THE MEETING
     _________________________________________________________________

   o Immediately following the meeting, please summarize the legislator's
    comments for your records and send them to the Grassroots Department
        for your state -- Common Cause, 1250 Connecticut Ave. N.W.,
     Washington, D.C. 20036 (or call 202-833-1200). The information you
     provide greatly assists our inside lobbying efforts in Washington.

    o Also immediately following the meeting, send a thank you letter to
    the representative and to the staff member who arranged the meeting.
     Restate your understanding of the positions the member took on the
      issue in the meeting and thank him or her for any expressions of
   support for your position. If the meeting was inconclusive, include a
        summary of your position, answers to specific questions the
   representative raised and any other new information that supports your
                                   views.
     _________________________________________________________________

                     OTHER CONTACT WITH YOUR LEGISLATOR
     _________________________________________________________________

   Questioning the candidates. During an election -- when incumbents and
    challengers are likely to be most available to constituents -- it is
       helpful to meet with all candidates to question them on their
   positions on Common Cause issues. Candidates' debates, coffee parties,
    a formal appointment or even a chance encounter during the campaign
    all are appropriate forums for questioning the candidate. The winner
      will then be more aware of Common Cause and its issues and will
   identify you as a local contact for Common Cause. It is important that
   it is clear that Common Cause is non-partisan and does not support or
                             oppose candidates.

    Meeting with a staff person. Although it is preferable to meet with
   the representative personally, a meeting with a staff person either in
      the local or capital office can also be beneficial. While staff
   members don't cast the vote of their Member of Congress, they are key
     people who can give you valuable information and advice. The staff
    person will also report your concerns to the representative. Meeting
     with the member's staff gives you an opportunity to build a closer
   relationship with the office. As you get to know the staff person, you
        will then be able to call upon him or her in the future for
   information, appointments and to relay messages to the representative.

       Dropping off information to local offices. Sometimes it is not
    possible or necessary to set up a formal meeting with the Member or
   his or her staff. One way to get your views across in an effective and
       personal way is to drop off information about the issue to the
    Member's local office. This could include good editorials, a Common
     Cause study or general background information. Your willingness to
   take the information to the office shows that you are very interested
       in the issue and it will get special attention. The Grassroots
              Department can help provide information for you.

       Public events, fairs, etc. During congressional recesses, most
    legislators return to their home districts to find out constituents'
   views on the issues. At this time, they will typically speak to local
         civic or professional groups; attend fairs, dedications or
   graduations; or conduct open district town meetings. Take advantage of
      this opportunity by finding out where the legislator will be and
    meeting him or her there to ask for support for your issue. Although
   these opportunities often do not allow for an extensive discussion of
   the issue, the legislator is much more alert to the importance of the
   issue to his or her constituents if he or she has been publicly asked
       to outline his position. A subsidiary benefit of questioning a
   legislator publicly is that the rest of the audience, often including
   the press, also becomes more aware of your issue. You can contact the
   legislator's local office to find out when and where he or she will be
                              in the district.

----------
               REACHING NEW AUDIENCES AND BUILDING COALITIONS
     _________________________________________________________________
     _________________________________________________________________
                       SPEAKING OUT IN YOUR COMMUNITY
     _________________________________________________________________
      Offering to speak about Common Cause or one of our issues is an
     excellent way to reach out politically to your community. Through
   organized speaking efforts you can distribute information about issues
    that are currently on the Common Cause agenda. You can also provide
    your audience with an introduction to Common Cause and show them how
                     they can become citizen lobbyists.

    You can offer to speak to community groups, religious groups, local
         schools or universities, senior citizen clubs or any other
   organization that invites speakers. If you are planning to speak on a
      specific issue currently in the Congress, contact the Grassroots
    Department at the national office -- 202-833-1200 -- for up-to-date
      information on the issue and the latest position of your elected
                          officials on the issue.

                  Tips for successful speaking engagements

    o Make it known to people in your community that you are prepared to
   speak before groups about Common Cause or the issues on which we work.
        The local Chamber of Commerce often keeps a list of social,
   professional, civic and religious groups in the community. You may get
   this list and inform the appropriate groups that you are available to
   speak to them. A notice in the local paper saying that a speaker from
           Common Cause is available may also elicit invitations.

    o Be informed about Common Cause, its origin, purpose, size, history
    and issue agenda. Know the status of issues currently on the agenda.
      Updated organizational and issues material is available from the
                         national or state office.

       o Talk to a representative from the group before the speaking
    engagement to get a sense of the topic you are expected to address,
   the expected size of the audience, the format for the meeting, and how
                      long you are expected to speak.

       o Know the nature of the group you are addressing. Refer, when
       possible, to the organization and individuals in it to enhance
        audience interest. Keep your remarks informative and brief.

      o Be prepared to answer questions. Find out, if possible, which
        questions frequently arise and be prepared to address those.

      o For your own preparation, learn opposing points of view. This
    information can help give you a better grasp of the pros and cons of
            the issues and better equip you to answer questions.

    o Bring membership brochures, and any special materials Common Cause
   has produced on the issue. If you are speaking to a university group,
    also bring brochures on internships with Common Cause. (Again, call
       202-833-1200 and ask for the Grassroots Department if you need
                                materials.)

     o Suggest specific action for those in the audience who agree with
      your message to take -- write to your representative today, join
      Common Cause. Get names, addresses and phone numbers of audience
    members who want to be more active. Although they may not be members
   of Common Cause, you can call on them to help on future actions on our
                                  issues.
     _________________________________________________________________

                            BUILDING COALITIONS
     _________________________________________________________________

    A coalition may be an informal arrangement among representatives of
      various groups united by a common position on a single issue, an
    on-going network of groups that share a similar approach on several
     issues, or a formal agreement among groups that develop a separate
     identity -- perhaps even with dues from each group, letterhead and
                                   staff.

    Common Causes traditional approach to working with coalitions is not
    one based on formal membership in a coalition, but rather one which
   involves close cooperation in terms of information-sharing; attending
     meetings; participation, when appropriate and consistent with our
      position, in joint activities such as coalition letters and news
     conferences; and utilization of our organizational resources where
      they will be most effective. This approach enables us to add our
     strengths to those of other organizations while, at the same time,
   ensuring our ability to keep our own positions on issues clear and to
        avoid being identified with any positions we have not taken.

     A coalition effort may simply involve sending a joint letter from
    several groups to your representative on an issue of mutual concern.
   Such an effort is an effective way to show broad support for an issue
       in the district or state. A coalition effort can also be more
   developed with regular meetings of the organizations involved and the
   use of more sophisticated techniques such as joint press conferences.

    But whatever the effort involves, a coalition should be as broad as
    possible to show wide support for an issue. Natural allies should be
   sought in building coalitions, but imagination can produce new allies
   to support an issue. An issue that can unite unlikely allies -- e.g.,
   conservatives and liberals -makes a powerful statement that the issue
                        is of broad public concern.

    Effective coalition building will go through at least three stages.
    You need to identify individuals and organizations beyond the Common
      Cause community who want to be involved in a joint effort on the
      issue. Second, you need to familiarize these activists with each
     other, with the substance of the issue, and with the goals of the
    campaign. Third, you need to activate coalitions with specific tasks
     that help develop and solidify a sense of collective action while
    using early skirmishes as training grounds for a sustained coalition
                                  effort.

   The first step in building a coalition is to try to identify any local
   groups that might share your concern about the issue around which you
      are organizing. Contact state and local counterparts of national
   groups that are working with Common Cause in Washington on the issue.
   However, do not ignore a local group because its national organization
    has not yet taken a stand on the issue -- in many organizations the
   local chapter can decide its own stand on national issues. Also search
   out local groups which are not affiliated with a national organization
               -- neighborhood groups or civic associations.

   Common Cause has an organizational philosophy of "no permanent allies
   and no permanent enemies." Do not hesitate to contact organizations we
   have opposed in the past on other issues but which may share a common
   interest in our current battle. Make it a priority to approach groups
   who you know have influence in your community or with your legislator.
       If the organization cannot join the coalition, see if it will
        communicate on its own with the legislator or if interested
   individuals in the group will take some personal action on the issue.

     Establish which person from each organization will be the contact
       person with the coalition. This person would attend coalition
     meetings, clear joint actions of the coalition with his or her own
     organization, and help motivate his or her organization to commit
                additional attention to the lobbying effort.

      Different groups have varied resources to devote to a coalition
   effort. These resources may reflect intensity of interest in the issue
   or other demands on the organization's people and funds. The coalition
      should prepare specific tasks and activities in which groups can
        become involved, making it easier for groups to take part in
   activities at a level their resources permit. Such activities include:
   joint letters or visits to the legislator; joint public statements or
    press releases; organizing phone banks or letter writing campaigns;
       writing and distributing leaflets; sponsoring public forums or
    reaching out to still more groups and individuals to be involved in
   the lobbying effort. Organizations which are not interested or able to
    lobby actively may still be able and willing to educate and activate
              their members through meetings and newsletters.

                Overall principles for successful coalitions

       o Make sure that every group and individual who is part of the
    coalition effort agrees to some basic understandings about coalition
                                activities.

    o A coalition needs to have a common understanding of the issue and
    shared goals, yet must have the flexibility to accommodate political
    and organizational differences. Clearly define and state the purpose
      and goal of the coalition. No one is empowered to speak for the
    coalition on issues not previously agreed upon. Each organization is
          free to speak for itself outside the coalition activity.

     o It takes a great deal of personal contact to build a coalition.
   Face-to-face or direct telephone contact helps more clearly to develop
    a shared understanding of goals and strategy. Personal contact helps
    develop the personal relationships that build trust, and fun, among
                             coalition members.

      o A coalition needs leadership, but not domination. Common Cause
       activists, for instance, will likely be the most vested in the
   campaign finance reform issue, but we need to make sure that we invite
     full and real participation by other groups and individuals. This
    gives those other groups a greater stake in the issue, broadens the
     issue's base of support and energizes a greater pool of activists.
   Similarly, on other issues Common Cause may not be the lead group in a
       coalition but, to be an effective participant in the coalition
   activity, should make clear what commitments it can make to the issue
         and should be responsible in fulfilling those commitments.

   o A group of individuals or organizations talking about the problem is
   not a coalition. A coalition starts to think of itself as such through
    common experiences and joint actions. A coalition needs regularly to
      develop specific approaches, strategies and time lines that are
      action-oriented. Spread credit and praise for those who complete
   coalition tasks. A coalition may face difficult decisions and tensions
    -- it is important to create a positive climate and an understanding
       that groups are willing to cooperate to achieve a common goal.
     _________________________________________________________________

                  OTHER ACTIVITIES TO REACH NEW AUDIENCES
     _________________________________________________________________

   o Set up a table to hand out literature on Common Cause at your local
    shopping center, community fairs, political forums, town meetings or
    other community events. Materials available from the national office
    which provide information on the organization or our issues include
    issue pamphlets and flyers, membership brochures and citizen action
                                  guides.

   o Circulate petitions or an open letter to your legislator. Make these
      petitions or letters available at fairs, shopping centers, town
     meetings and other community events. Asking citizens to sign these
    letters and petitions is an excellent way to introduce yourself as a
   member of Common Cause and generates interest in the issue. A document
   with a large number of constituent signatures will also have an impact
                            on your legislator.

     o Organize a coffee party or meeting in your home and invite local
    members of Common Cause. Ask each member to bring along a friend or
   neighbor who is not a member of Common Cause. Enlist their assistance
        in lobbying your legislator. Neighborhood meetings should be
    informational but, most importantly, result in some kind of action.
   Have a supply of writing paper, envelopes, and stamps and at the close
      of the meeting ask each attendee to write a letter to his or her
    legislator. Also, distribute current information about Common Cause
   and membership brochures to meeting attendees and invite them to join.

    o Post Common Cause brochures or other current material on bulletin
   boards at your place of worship, supermarket, local college campuses,
               apartment building and other public locations.

   o Use Common Cause Magazine to spread the word to others by leaving a
     copy of the magazine in the waiting room at professional offices.
     Bring a copy of the magazine into your local library or university
     library and ask them to put it out for the public to read. Place a
    copy in the magazine holder in front of your seat on an airplane or
     train. There are a number of other locations in your community to
        leave a copy of the magazine -- be creative. You can request
        additional copies of the magazine from the national office.

----------
   Definitions of significant words and concepts in the areas of campaign
   finance reform and ethics in government.
     _________________________________________________________________

   Buckley v. Valeo

   Buckley v. Valeo is the landmark 1976 Supreme Court decision on
   campaign finance law. The Supreme Court upheld the disclosure
   requirements in the law, the contribution limits, and the provision
   for public funding of presidential election campaigns. The Court found
   that: "To the extent that large contributions are given to secure a
   political quid pro quo from current and potential office holders, the
   integrity of our system of representative democracy is undermined."

   The Court struck down the spending limits in the law -- except when
   there are voluntary limits as part of a public financing scheme, as in
   the presidential campaign finance system. The ruling affected the
   limits on spending by congressional candidates (the law did not
   include public financing for congressional races), on independent
   expenditures and on the amount of personal wealth that a candidate
   spends on his or her own campaign.

   The Court also struck down the mechanism for appointing members of the
   Federal Election Commission (FEC). In 1976, Congress established a new
   appointment process for the FEC.

   [text of Buckley v. Valeo decision]
     _________________________________________________________________

   Bundling

   "Bundling" is when an individual or an entity gathers together
   separate campaign contributions from many sources and delivers them
   together -- in a bundle -- to a particular candidate. It is a problem
   because it is a way for the bundler to evade the contribution limits.

   For instance, a PAC can give only $5,000 to a candidate for a
   particular election. But suppose agents of the PAC go around to a
   number of individuals and collect separate checks for $1,000 made
   payable to the candidate from each individual. Assume that the PAC
   collects 50 of these checks. It then provides these checks in a bundle
   to the candidate and gets the credit for delivering a $50,000
   contribution -- far in excess of the PACs contribution limit. The same
   is true for an individual such as a lobbyist who gathers together many
   separate checks from different individuals and delivers them -- or
   arranges for them to be delivered -- to a candidate.

   Bundling thus is harmful because it is a way around the contribution
   limits for both individuals and PACs. It allows individuals and PACs
   to get credit from candidates for delivering the kind of big money
   that the contribution limits are intended to deter. As The New York
   Times has said, "By assembling checks and then sheaving them together
   as one huge gift to favored candidates, corporations and industry PACs
   now easily evade limits on campaign contributions."
     _________________________________________________________________

   Congressional Campaign Finance System

   There are no spending limits or public financing in congressional
   campaigns. Congressional candidates are subject to the same
   contribution limits and disclosure requirements as presidential
   candidates.

   BACK
     _________________________________________________________________

   Contribution Limits

   Federal campaign finance law limits the amounts individuals and groups
   may contribute to candidates, PACs or political parties. Corporations
   and labor unions are prohibited from making contributions or
   expenditures to influence federal elections. They are allowed to use
   their own funds to establish and administer PACs in order to make
   contributions and expenditures.

   The chart below shows how the limits apply to the various participants
   in a federal election:

   To a candidate or candidate committee per election To a national party
   committee per calendar year To any other political committee per
   calendar year* Total per calendar year
   Individual may give: $1,000 $20,000 $5,000 $25,000
   Political Action Committee+ may give: $5,000 $15,000 $5,000 No limit
   Other political committee may give: $1,000 $20,000 $5,000 No limit

   * Exception: if a contributor gives to a committee knowing that a
   substantial portion of the contribution will be used to support a
   particular candidate, then the contribution counts against the donor's
   limit for that candidate (first column on the chart).

   + Limits apply to any PAC with more than 50 contributors which has
   been registered for at least six months and has made contributions to
   5 or more candidates for federal office.

   Source: Federal Election Commission
     _________________________________________________________________

   Filibuster/Cloture

   "Filibuster" is an informal term for any attempt to block or delay
   Senate action on a bill or other matter by debating it at length, by
   offering numerous procedural motions, or by any other delaying or
   obstructive actions. In the past, Senators had to actually stand on
   the Senate floor and speak for the filibuster to continue. But in
   recent years, Senate rules, in effect, allow a Senator simply to
   declare his intention to filibuster. A filibuster can be stopped by
   "invoking cloture" -- the only procedure by which the Senate can vote
   to place a time limit on consideration of a bill and thereby end a
   filibuster. Invoking cloture requires an affirmative vote of
   three-fifths of the Senators (60 votes when there are no vacancies).
     _________________________________________________________________

   Independent Counsel

   In 1978, as part of the Ethics in Government Act, Congress established
   the process for independent counsel investigations of allegations
   against certain high-level executive branch officials. (28 USC 591)
   When allegations are brought to the attention of the Department of
   Justice, a two-step investigatory process is followed, leading to the
   Attorney General applying to a three-judge panel for appointment of an
   independent counsel if the charges appear to reach a threshold level
   of credibility.

   The law is designed to ensure that there is a credible system for
   holding the highest-level officials in the executive branch
   accountable for criminal wrongdoing. The Independent Counsel statute
   flowed directly from the Watergate scandal. In that scandal, those
   officials most entrusted with enforcing the law faced allegations of
   violating it -- the Attorney General, the Director of the Federal
   Bureau of Investigation and the President of the United States
   himself.

   As Archibald Cox, the first Watergate Special Prosecutor, testified
   before the Senate: "The pressures, the tensions of divided loyalty are
   too much for any man, and as honorable and conscientious as any
   individual might be, the public could never feel entirely easy about
   the vigor and thoroughness with which the investigation was pursued.
   Some outside person is absolutely essential."

   BACK
     _________________________________________________________________

   Independent Expenditures

   Independent expenditures are expenditures on behalf of or against a
   candidate which are not coordinated with a candidate. For example, an
   auto dealers' PAC might spend $50,000 on TV ads critical of a
   candidate's stand on import restrictions and urge a vote against that
   candidate.

   Like personal wealth, the Supreme Court has ruled that spending in
   support of or in opposition to a candidate that is not coordinated
   with any candidate cannot be limited. Such "independent expenditures"
   can be made by either individuals or PACs. Thus, while individuals and
   PACs are limited in the amount they can contribute directly to a
   campaign, they are not limited in the amount they can spend for a
   campaign, so long as it is spent without coordination or consultation
   with any campaign.
     _________________________________________________________________

   Issue Advocacy/Express Advocacy

   Political ads which urge the viewer to "vote for" or "vote against" a
   candidate are examples of express advocacy and must be paid for from
   contributions which come under the restrictions of federal campaign
   finance laws, including prohibitions on contributions by corporations
   or labor unions. Advertising campaigns discussing issues -- and not
   directly advocating the defeat or election of a candidate -- are not
   subject to federal campaign finance laws. Thus, these "issue advocacy"
   campaigns are not subject to limits on spending or contributions and
   are not required to disclose their contributions or expenditures.

   However, in the 1996 election, labor unions and corporations waged
   multimillion dollar campaigns in the districts and states of targeted
   congressional candidates. These campaigns were carried out under the
   guise of issue advocacy even though the ads criticized a named
   candidate in hostile terms clearly meant to influence the election.
   Because a series of court decisions have defined broadly what
   constitutes "issue advocacy", spending in this form may become a
   significant new loophole for evading the campaign finance laws.
     _________________________________________________________________

   Lobbyist

   Lobbying, or attempting to influence the policymaking of government,
   is a right under the U.S. Constitution. Article I of the Bill of
   Rights declares "the right of the people ... to petition the
   Government for a redress of grievances."

   While lobbying is a right, the practice of special-interest lobbying
   in Washington and the state capitals has developed into a system of
   using money to gain access and influence to powerful public officials.

   The Lobbyist Disclosure Act of 1995 requires persons lobbying Congress
   or the executive branch to register and to disclose their expenses and
   the issues they are lobbying on. The Act defines a lobbyist as "any
   individual who is employed or retained by a client for financial or
   other compensation for services that include more than one lobbying
   contact, other than an individual whose lobbying activities constitute
   less than 20 percent of the time engaged in the services provided by
   such individual to that client over a six-month period."
     _________________________________________________________________

   Political Action Committee (PAC)

   PACs are political committees that make contributions to candidates
   and engage in other election-related activities but are not the
   official committees of particular candidates or political parties.
   Some PACs are affiliated with corporations, labor unions, or other
   sponsoring organizations which provide the PACs with administrative
   expenses. Employees or members of the sponsoring organizations may
   contribute to PACs, but the corporations and labor unions are
   prohibited from contributing their own treasury funds to their PAC.
   Other PACs are independent of any sponsoring organization.
   Additionally, some Members of Congress have formed their own PACs,
   separate from their candidate committees, allowing them to accept and
   dole out larger contributions than they can through their own
   candidate committee.

   Nearly all PACs have specific legislative agendas. Special-interest
   PACs are a dominant force in the financing of congressional campaigns
   and their contributions are heavily tilted to incumbents. Their
   numbers and influence are growing: in 1976 there were 608 PACs, 20
   years later, in 1996, there are more than 4,000 PACs.

   BACK
     _________________________________________________________________

   Presidential Campaign Finance System

   The presidential campaign finance system was a landmark reform coming
   in the wake of the Watergate scandal. The system provides candidates
   with public funds if they agree to voluntary spending limits. In the
   1996 general election, the two major party candidates received $62
   million each after agreeing not to raise or spend any private money.
   In the primaries, candidates received matching federal funds for any
   contribution up to $250 if they agree to the spending limit; in the
   1996 election the spending limit was $37 million.

   Presidential campaigns are covered by the same contribution limits and
   disclosure requirements as congressional candidates.

   BACK
     _________________________________________________________________

   Public Financing/Public Resources

   A critical element of campaign finance reform is to ensure that
   candidates, especially challengers, have sufficient resources to run
   viable campaigns. There are various ways to accomplish this goal. In
   the presidential campaign finance system, candidates in the primaries
   receive matching funds for every $250 contribution if they agree to
   spending limits; in the general election, the candidates may receive a
   grant of public funds if they agree not to raise or spend any private
   money. The presidential system is funded by the voluntary $3 tax
   checkoff on federal income tax forms.

   The congressional campaign finance system does not include provisions
   for public financing. Reform advocates have proposed some alternative
   resources as part of overall reform of the congressional system. These
   resources could include free and reduced rate television and radio
   time, and reduced rate postage. These measures would reduce
   fundraising pressure by reducing the candidate's costs for
   communicating with voters.
     _________________________________________________________________

   Soft Money

   Soft money is a loophole that has developed in recent years to provide
   candidates, contributors and political parties a means to evade
   federal contribution limits. "Soft" money is money that is illegal
   under federal law -- it either violates federal source restrictions
   (such as money from corporations) or federal limits (such as large
   contributions from individuals in amounts often exceeding $100,000).

   Federal law prohibits corporations and labor unions from contributing
   any money to federal campaigns. Federal law also limits an individual
   to contributing no more than $1,000 to a federal candidate per
   election, and no more than $20,000 to a political party per year.

   To evade these restrictions, soft money contributions are given by
   individuals, corporations, unions or others directly to designated
   non-federal accounts of the national political parties. The national
   party committees spend the money directly or through state parties on
   activities such as voter registration drives or get-out-the-vote
   drives that benefit candidates in federal elections. In the 1996
   election, soft money paid for so-called issue ads intended to
   influence the presidential election. Thus, the soft money
   contributions are laundered through the political parties in a way
   that allows federally illegal money to nonetheless be used to
   influence federal elections.

   Soft money is a scandal. This loophole has given a rebirth to the
   kinds of huge individual and corporate contributions in the political
   process that have not been seen since Watergate.

   BACK
     _________________________________________________________________

   Spectrum/Free TV

   According to the Congressional Budget Office, "the radio 'spectrum'
   does not exist as a physical object; rather, it is a conceptual tool
   used to organize and map a set of physical phenomena. Electric and
   magnetic fields produce waves that move through space at different
   frequencies, and the set of all possible frequencies is called the
   electromagnetic spectrum." The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
   which is usable for radio and television transmission is about one
   percent of the total spectrum. The rest includes visible light,
   ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma-ray waves.

   The airwaves are owned by the public. Television broadcasters receive
   a license to use and profit from the publics airwaves. Congress has
   the power to condition that license on the broadcasters agreement to
   public interest obligations, including providing a reasonable amount
   of air time at free or reduced rates for the sake of improving the
   political process.

   BACK
     _________________________________________________________________

   Spending Limits

   There are no limits on spending by congressional candidates. In
   presidential campaigns, candidates may agree to voluntary spending
   limits and in return receive public funding for their campaigns. In
   the presidential primaries, candidates receive federal matching funds
   for contributions of $250 or less; the primary spending limit in 1996
   was $37 million. In the general election, candidates' campaigns are
   funded entirely by public funds if they agree not to raise or spend
   any private campaign money; in 1996, the two major party presidential
   candidates each received $62 million.

   Under the Supreme Court decision in Buckley v. Valeo, spending limits
   must be voluntary. Candidates may be offered significant inducements
   of alternative resources if they abide by the spending limits. But
   candidates are free to refuse the alternative resources and ignore the
   spending limits.


                        Copyright 1996, Common Cause


.

